In my previous blog I referred to the Message Sent From His Highness the Lord Protector, to the Great Turk (1654) as an attempt to manipulate received information and create public opinion in Cromwellian England. The anxieties regarding the death, capture or conversion of English sailors were deconstructed to create the positive tone of the Message, which announced the good news that English captives were released, no more English people would be taken captive and that political and economic relations with the Northern principalities of the Ottoman Empire had been established.

John Speed’s Map of Europ (1626) available via Wikipedia

But reality told another story. Despite Blake’s assurance that no more English would be captured after Cromwell’s message was read to the Dey of Algeria, between the years 1655 and 1658 at least 323 English people were captured by the same pirates. Yet, considering Blake’s correspondences that were confirmed further by the Levant Company’s complaints against him, it can be concluded that the reason for the breach of the gentleman’s agreement was a reciprocal one. Despite having concluded a peace treaty with the Dey of Algeria and being congratulated by Cromwell himself, Blake enthusiastically notes in his letter from April 1655 how he attacked Porto Ferino, aka Porto Farino, burned many ships, and killed many locals.

Admiral Robert Blake (1598-1657) via Wikipedia

Yet, in spite of Blake’s misdemeanours, the Cromwellian regime did its best to avoid conflict with North Africa and thus the Ottomans. When in April 1656 some English captives were released, Cromwell replied with a letter which alluded to passages from the Quran, namely from Chapter Al ‘Imran, Verse 110, about the “righteousness” of Muslims, to compliment the Muslim Algerians on their righteousness as a diplomatic gesture:

Oliver Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, & Ireland & the dominions thereof.

To the thrice Illustrious, thrice noble, & right worthy the Aga Captain Generali, his Brethren the Aga Bashas, & the rest of that Honourable Society of the great Councell of State & warre in the city of Algiers, wisheth health & peace from God.

[…] We now at this time require the like of you who have declar’d your selves hitherto in all things to be men loving righteousnesse, hating wrong, & observing faithfulnesse in covenant [emphasis added]. Our complaint is that a ship or Pinke of ours called the Crowne Herring, laden with oyles, Tho. Arret being Master, coming from Gallippole was on the … taken by some ships of warre belonging to Algiers whereby the owner Joh: Frederick Alderman of London is likely to sustaine great losse, unlesse you give command forthwith that the ship & goods be restor’d to him which were taken, as is manifest to all men directly against the league & friendship between us: which we on our parts will not faile to observe justly, & expect the like from your honours. Given in our Palace at West: the … day of the month June in the year 1656.

As an extension of this, Cromwell in December 1656 wrote to the Venetians to release 150 Turkish captives they imprisoned in exchange for 150 English captives held in Northern Africa. Of course, the Venetians bluntly rejected this offer, given the fact that the Cromwellian regime refused to support them against the Ottomans. Following this, the Cromwellian administration continued its efforts for the release of the English captives with the North African principalities and the Ottomans.

Mehmet IV via Wikipedia

Initially, letters were sent to Mehmet IV describing the damage done to Anglo-Ottoman relations as exemplified in the recent capture of the trade ship Resolution around Rhodes that was bound to Alexandretta. A transcription of the letter reads as follows:

To the Grand Seigneur

1657, August 11. Our Palace of Westminster.

Oliver, by the Grace of God Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and the dominions and territories thereto belonging, to the High and Mighty Emperor, Sultan Mahomet Han, Chief Lord and Commander of the Mussulman Empire, Sole and supreme Monarch of the Eastern Empire, greeting.

Would be very unwilling that the amity and traffic between “both nations” should be disturbed, desiring nothing more than a continuance and increase of that friendship which hath been established, yet this has been too frequently interrupted by pirates who find retreat and succour in his Majesty’s dominions. An instance whereof (to omit many others) appears in the late surprisal of an English ship called the Resolution, bound for Scanderoon, which has been assaulted by ships of Tripoli (part of his Majesty’s fleet) and carried into Rhodes, where ship, goods, and all on board of her have been seized. Cannot pass over so barbarous and dishonourable an act, and so manifest a breach of the peace, and presumes so much of his Majesty’s wisdom and justice that he will order complete restitution, and also, for his own honour, take course for suppressing and punishment of pirates, and a general redress of all former injuries. Has given orders to his Ambassador at the Porte to inform his Majesty more particularly, and desires to know his resolution therein, in order to take course for the protection of his people.

Similar to the rather positive tone of the letter sent to the rulers in Algeria in June 1656, this carefully drafted diplomatic letter emphasised the amity between the two nations. It also underscored the demands of the English by ending the letter with the assurance that Cromwell trusts Mehmet IV’s mind, justice and honour in the retributive measures against the said pirates.

Köprülü Mehmet Pasha via Wikipedia

Another letter that was sent to the Grand Vizier, however, was more direct in its purpose and emphatically protested against the capture of the English vessel, threatening a standstill of commerce if the damages were not compensated. A transcript of the letter reads as follows:

To the High and Excellent Lord, the Vizier Azem

[1657, August 11]. On the same subject. Remonstrates against this act of violence and injustice, and demands punishment of the offenders, restitution of the ship and goods and release of the master, mariners and passengers; otherwise the Sultan must expect ruin and desolation of all trade, besides confusion and danger to his own state.

Though it remains questionable whether or not the rather threatening contents of the last message were delivered in the Ottoman court, both of these letters seem to have been answered by Ahmet Pasha, securing the release of the English prisoners, and it seems that the reply of the Ottomans was well received in the English protectorate.

Following these diplomatic exchanges, with the rise of local powers a peace treaty, which also included clauses for commercial benefits, was signed with the Tetuanian government in August 1657. In line with this positive atmosphere, it was seen that the Levant Company even laboured from 1657 to 1658 for the release of two Turks held captive by the Spanish. Another peace treaty was signed in Tunisia in February 1658 that further promoted Anglo-Ottoman relations. With the death of Cromwell, however, Anglo-Ottoman relations began to be strained as the restraint against English pirates also eased and caused reciprocal hot conflict in the Mediterranean.

All in all, the Interregnum was an important period for the development of Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations and provides us with many insights about the cultural and political exchanges between the two nations. In order to have a comprehensive view of this exchange, however, more work needs to be done, especially to show how these exchanges were received on the Ottoman side. As part of this endeavour, I am in the preparation of a project that will dive into the Turkish archives and, hopefully, illustrate how these diplomatic letters have been received in the Ottoman court. Hopefully, you will hear more about this in the near future.

Selected Bibliography

Abbot, Wilbur C., ed. The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. Vol. 4. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.

Anon. A Message Sent from His Highness the Lord Protector, To the Great Turk. London: Peter Mitchel, 1654. STC Wing C7117.

Birchwood, Matthew. Staging Islam in England: Drama and Culture, 1640-1685. Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 2007.

Blake, Robert. The Letters of Robert Blake. Ed. J. R. Powell. London: Navy Records Society, 1937.

Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts Relating to English Affairs Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice and in other Libraries of Northern Italy. Vol. 30. Burlington: Tanner Ritchie, 2009.

Carlyle, Thomas, ed. The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. Vol. 3. London: Methuen, 1904.

Coward, Barry. The Cromwellian Protectorate. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.

Firth, C. H., ed. The Clarke Papers. Vol. 3. London: Longmans, 1899.

Matar, Nabil. British Captives from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1663-1760. Leiden: Brill, 2014.

Matar, Nabil. Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

Tedder, Arthur William. The Navy of The Restoration from The Death of Cromwell to the Treaty of Breda: From the Death of Cromwell to the Treaty of Breda, Its Work, Growth and Influence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.