Turkey carpets, renowned for their vibrant colours, intricate patterns, and luxurious texture, became symbols of cultural sophistication and power in early modern England. Originating from Ottoman Turkey, these carpets represented more than mere household decorations; they conveyed the allure of an exotic empire and symbolised England’s growing connections to the wider world. The expansion of Ottoman territories and their control over key carpet-making centres transformed Turkish carpets into prized items within Europe’s elite circles, where they found a place in art, literature, and elite domestic spaces. In literary and artistic portrayals, such as Holbein’s famous The Ambassadors (1533), Turkish carpets represent a complex intersection of aesthetic allure and geopolitical interest.

According to Angela Sutton-Vane, a significant “Carpet Design Revolution” swept through Turkey by the late 15th century, beginning in the carpet-producing hub of Ushak. This evolution coincided with the Ottoman Empire’s conquests, including the capture of Tabriz in 1514 and Cairo in 1517, which integrated key Persian and Egyptian weaving techniques into Ottoman production. Many skilled weavers from Tabriz were relocated to Istanbul, enhancing the Turkish carpet industry’s craftsmanship and design sophistication. Persian design influences, such as medallion patterns and prayer niches, became integrated into Ottoman carpets, especially in urban weaving centres that were responsive to commercial and international demand (Sutton-Vane, 20-21).[1] As Ottoman expansion progressed, the allure of Turkish carpets grew in Europe, particularly in England, where early modern aristocrats and royal figures prized these imports for their exotic appeal. Henry VIII and his influential advisor, Cardinal Wolsey, became avid collectors of what were often called “Holbein carpets,” after the artist Hans Holbein, who famously depicted them in portraits such as The Ambassadors (1533). Although English production began with embroidered rather than knotted carpets, these imitations reflected the domestic demand for Ottoman-inspired decor (Gauci).[2]

Fig. 1. The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein the Younger[3]

The fascination with Turkish carpets in England emerged alongside Elizabeth I’s strategic approach toward the Ottoman Empire. At a time when England, a Protestant nation, viewed Catholic Europe—particularly Spain—as a looming threat, England’s political relationship with the Ottoman Turks provided an advantageous counterbalance. The Ottoman Empire, by challenging Spain’s Mediterranean dominance, effectively diverted Catholic attention eastward, allowing England to pursue its economic and political interests more freely (Hutchings, 190-91).[4] Indeed, the “Turkish policy,” as Mark Hutchings describes in “Tis a pageant / To keep us in false gaze”: Othello, Virtual History, and the Jacobean Audience´s Turkish Expectations’, was not merely opportunistic but rather a calculated effort by Elizabeth I to extend England’s influence and economic reach. Elizabeth’s decision to dispatch William Harborne as an ambassador to Constantinople in 1581 marked the beginning of a formalized relationship with the Ottoman Empire, opening doors for English merchants. Turkey carpets quickly became prized imports, especially within the aristocracy and court circles, where they were valued not only as luxurious goods but also as symbols of England’s expanding mercantile success (Hutchings, 190-91). Thus, these carpets signified not just personal wealth but also England’s broader ambitions in aligning with a non-Catholic power to counterbalance the influence of Spain and other Catholic states.

Fig. 2. Ottoman Court Carpet, late 16th–17th century[5]

In early modern English drama, references to Turkey carpets underscore this cultural and political fascination. In Christopher Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great, for instance, Callapine envisions streets lined with “Turkey carpets” as part of a grand display of power and luxury:

The pavement underneath thy chariot wheels

With Turkey carpets shall be coverèd (Marlowe, Tamburlaine the Great, Act II, Scene 1).

Here, Callapine’s imagery of Turkish carpets covering the streets conveys a sense of dominance and grandeur, reflecting not only personal wealth but also an empire’s power to acquire and display foreign luxuries. This would have resonated with an English audience familiar with the Ottoman Empire’s wealth and influence, as well as aware of their own country’s rising interest in trade with the East.

Similarly, Ben Jonson’s Volpone includes a reference to Turkey carpets that underscores their association with wealth and prestige. In Act 5, Scene 3, Mosca lists Volpone’s possessions in a mock inventory, itemizing “Turkey carpets, nine,” alongside luxurious items like “two suits of bedding, tissue.” The exchange between Mosca and Voltore reveals how these items are integral to Volpone’s elaborate show of wealth and power:

MOSCA: Turkey carpets, nine –

VOLTORE: Taking an inventory! That is well. (Jonson, Volpone, Act 5, Scene 3)

In Volpone, the Turkish carpets, along with other symbols of luxury, are markers of Volpone’s amassed wealth and serve to create an image of opulence intended to deceive and manipulate those around him. Jonson’s inclusion of these carpets aligns with the English fascination with foreign luxury and reflects how such goods could convey not only individual affluence but also cultural status. For an English audience, Turkey carpets in this context would evoke a sense of exotic allure, embodying the decadence and wealth that came with trade relations with the Ottoman Empire.

In the theatre, the visual appeal of Turkish carpets also enhanced the sense of exoticism and decadence associated with the Ottoman Empire. These cultural associations would have added to the allure of Ottoman-inspired settings and characters, allowing audiences to appreciate the East’s riches while reinforcing English ideas of wealth and the foreign. In both Tamburlaine and Volpone, these references to Turkish carpets thus become part of a larger commentary on luxury, greed, and the social status conferred by exotic goods.

Ultimately, Turkey carpets in early modern English drama symbolised more than mere luxury; they represented England’s ambition to establish its own global presence. Elizabeth I’s endorsement of trade with the Ottomans laid the groundwork for this broader economic expansion, influencing both the English marketplace and the literary imagination for years to come. Through references to Turkish carpets and other Eastern luxuries, playwrights like Marlowe and Jonson tapped into contemporary audiences’ fascination with the Ottoman Empire, using these images to evoke themes of power, prestige, and exotic wealth—elements that remained woven into the fabric of England’s developing global identity (Hutchings, 189-200).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anon. Metropolitan Museum, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/450466?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=&utm_term=&utm_content=39536&mkwid=s&pcrid=610591309328&pmt=&pkw=&pdv=c&slid=&product=&gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQiArby5BhCDARIsAIJvjIT7zWeLDpauoV7enhtv0EJT3eR3KXSiLB8JwUZnzw_F34CHw3zgYmAaApydEALw_wcB

Gauci, Kathryn. ‘Turkish Carpets: From the Steppes of Central Asia to the Tudor Court.’ Kathryn Gauci. 26/07/2015 https://www.kathryngauci.com/blog-15-turkish-carpets-from-the-steppes-of-central-asia-to-the-tudor-court/ Accessed: 9 Nov 2024

Hutchings, Mark. (2000) ´“´Tis a pageant / To keep us in false gaze”: Othello, Virtual History, and the Jacobean Audience´s Turkish Expectations´. In: Shakespeare and his Contemporaries in Performance (Ed. Edward J. Esche). Ashgate, pp. 189-211.

Sutton-Vane, Angela. ‘Tying the Knot: The material culture of the Turkish hand-knotted carpet in England.’ Unpublished Dissertation. October 2011, MRes Humanities (Middle Eastern & Islamic Studies), pp. 1-202

 Title Image: The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein

[1] Sutton-Vane, Angela. ‘Tying the Knot: The material culture of the Turkish hand-knotted carpet in England.’ Unpublished Dissertation. October 2011, MRes Humanities (Middle Eastern & Islamic Studies), pp. 1-202

[2] Gauci, Kathryn. ‘Turkish Carpets: From the Steppes of Central Asia to the Tudor Court.’ Kathryn Gauci. 26/07/2015 https://www.kathryngauci.com/blog-15-turkish-carpets-from-the-steppes-of-central-asia-to-the-tudor-court/ Accessed: 9 Nov 2024

[3] https://www.kathryngauci.com/blog-15-turkish-carpets-from-the-steppes-of-central-asia-to-the-tudor-court/

[4] Hutchings, M. (2000) '“´Tis a pageant / To keep us in false gaze”: Othello, Virtual History, and the Jacobean Audience's Turkish Expectations'. In: Shakespeare and his Contemporaries in Performance (Ed. Edward J. Esche). Ashgate, pp. 189-211.

[5] Metropolitan Museum, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/450466?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=&utm_term=&utm_content=39536&mkwid=s&pcrid=610591309328&pmt=&pkw=&pdv=c&slid=&product=&gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQiArby5BhCDARIsAIJvjIT7zWeLDpauoV7enhtv0EJT3eR3KXSiLB8JwUZnzw_F34CHw3zgYmAaApydEALw_wcB