What lies beneath Sicily's history, overshadowed by its Greek and Roman influences? Dive into the fascinating tapestry of cultural fusion where Islamic and Christian traditions intertwine, forever shaping Sicilian culture, language, and architecture.

Islamic rule had a significant impact on Sicilian culture, language, and architecture, and is evident even today. This influence began when the Aghlabids, an Islamic dynasty from Ifriqiya, conquered the island in 827 AD, followed by the Fatimids, a Shi’ite Islamic dynasty, in 904 AD. The introduction of new crops and technologies to the island through Islamisation during this time left an enduring influence on Sicilian society.

The Fatimids quickly saw a grim end to their rule when Normans Robert Guiscard and his son Robert led campaigns over the entire island, bringing Islamic rule to an end. Roger II, who inherited the throne in 1130, ruled a diverse population of ethnicities and religions, shaping a truly multicultural island. His reign gained a reputation for religious tolerance and multiculturalism, but how? Was it historically accurate to label it as religiously tolerant and multicultural?

The Royal Mantle: A Symbol of Cultural Fusion

Roger II’s royal mantle encapsulates his rulership perfectly and through a careful selection of materials, fuses together two monumental eras in Sicily’s history. Intended to be a historical heirloom, the mantle was created in 1133 for his sons to inherit, and later formed a crucial element to the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor.

The mantle encompasses three variants of silk, bound by gold thread with pearls imported from the Persian Gulf, sewn intricately. The materials re-emphasised Sicily’s position as a medieval hub of culture and trade. Surprisingly, the mantle is lined with Arabic calligraphy in Kufic script, a nod to their Arab predecessors, stating:

“This belongs to the articles worked in the royal workshop, (which has) flourished with fortune and honour, with industry and perfection, with might and merit, with (his) sanction and (his) prosperity, with magnanimity and majesty, with renown and beauty and the felicitous days and nights without cease or change, with honour and solicitude, with protection and defence, with success and certainty, with triumph and industry. In the (capital) city of Sicily in the year 528”

The centre is quite obviously dominated by the Tree of Life with a lion dominating a camel on either side. The tree and lion undoubtedly invoke papal imagery, demonstrating the victory over the Muslims and their counterpart’s subjugation to Norman Christian rule.

Despite the mantle's emphasis on Christian power, Roger II's impression of Islamic culture is evident through his appreciation of Arab traditions. The mantle stands as a testament to the arabisation of Sicily, showcasing the cultural fusion of Islamic and Christian traditions. The mantle is often overlooked as a significant element of material history, one that depicts the intermingling between two variant worlds. Historians Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris discuss the importance of the mantle here.

Copyright Kaiserliche Schatzkammer, Vienna, acc. no. WS XIII 14.

The Royal Court and Central Administration

Roger II’s reign was characterised by his governance over the royal court and creation of a central administration. The Assizes of Ariano were monumental in creating a set of codified laws that were upheld across the entire kingdom. Speculated to have been first implemented in the 1140s, the Code was heavily influenced by Norman, Byzantine and Islamic legal traditions. The Assizes of Ariano were not a sudden set of enforced laws, instead they were a culmination of a legal developments that occurred in Sicily over Roger’s reign. They covered a range of legal topics including feudal developments, civil disputes and criminal offences.

The Code granted rights to non-Catholic Christians, Greek Orthodox Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Roger II promoted religious tolerance, requiring all inhabitants to pay a tributum or censum—simply put, a tax. This contrasted with the jizya system, whereby Muslim rulers required non-Muslim communities to pay for their protection. The Assizes of Ariano contributed to the emergence of a significantly centralised legal system in the Mediterranean, and with the religious tolerance the Codes enforced, it was undeniably ahead of its time.

Alexander Metcalfe and Khalid Yahya Blankinship are few of many historians that emphasise the diversity in Roger’s court. Much like many areas in the medieval Middle East, Sicily attracted a wide range of intellectuals with diverse backgrounds. Islamic scholars were instrumental in translating and transmitting a wealth of scientific, philosophical, and literary knowledge from Arabic into Latin or Greek. This facilitated a movement of knowledge between the Christian West and Islamic East with many notable products, one being the famous Tabula Rogeriana, (Roger’s Map), commissioned by al-Idrisi.

Tabula Rogeriana, Bibliothèque nationale de France
 

Islamic Art in Sicilian Architecture

Architecture expresses a moment and makes a mark in history. The design of a building can encapsulate the culture, language and attitude of society in one period and can live on for many periods to come. Sicily has various examples of this expression; buildings such as the Baroque Architecture of Noto or Roman Villa del Casale exhibit Sicily during the post-classical and late medieval period. Roger II’s reign was no stranger to this form of art. The architecture constructed during his rulership only strengthens the attachment of the term “multicultural” to his reign.

The Palatine Chapel was a significant architectural project during Roger II’s reign, beginning in the 1130s. The Chapel, located in Palermo served as the private chapel of the Norman kings and was intended to be a place of worship for the royal family. The chapel's architecture reflects the multicultural influences present in Norman Sicily at the time. It combines elements of Norman, Byzantine, and Islamic architectural styles, creating a unique fusion of artistic traditions. The influence of Islamic art is seen in the decorative nature of the chapel, with geometric patterns, Arabic inscriptions of passages from the Qur’an on the arches and walls and the famous rounded arch, popular in al-Andalus, a former Islamic territory in Spain.

Roger II’s enthusiastic and successful attempt in fusing various cultural traditions was not short-lived either. His son William I continued this tradition with the construction of the Zisa and Cuba Palaces - also heavily influenced by Islamic art.

The walls of Palatine Chapel influenced by geometric patterns used in Islamic art.  https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;it;mon01;10;en

Twelfth-century Sicily was a melting pot of various cultures and religious identities. Roger II used this strength to build the island as a hub of knowledge and cultural exchange. To term Roger II’s Sicily as multicultural is anachronistic but it is a testament to the history of diversity. It prompts historians and people around the world to look again at the history of their country - perhaps our favourite landmarks weren’t shaped by the native population but from people across the world.

Saarah Ahmed is an MA student at Queen Mary, University of London, and MEMOs Spring Intern 2023.